saltwater populations under
controlled conditions, and can be
contrasted with commercial fishing, which is the harvesting of wild fish.[3]Mariculture refers to aquaculture practiced in marine
environments and in underwater
habitats. The reported output from global
aquaculture operations would
supply one half of the fish and
shellfish that is directly consumed by humans;[4] however, there are issues about the reliability of the reported figures.[5] Further, in current aquaculture practice,
products from several pounds of
wild fish are used to produce one
pound of a piscivorous fish like salmon.[6] Particular kinds of aquaculture
include fish farming, shrimp farming, oyster farming, algaculture (such as seaweed farming), and the cultivation of ornamental fish. Particular methods include aquaponics and Integrated multi-trophic
aquaculture, both of which integrate fish farming and plant
farming. History Workers harvest catfish from the Delta Pride Catfish farms in Mississippi The indigenous Gunditjmara people in Victoria, Australia may have raised eels as early as
6000 BC. There is evidence that
they developed about 100 square
kilometres (39 sq mi) of volcanic floodplains in the vicinity of Lake Condah into a complex of channels and dams, that they used woven traps to capture eels, and that capturing and smoking eels supported them year round.[7][8] Aquaculture was operating in China circa 2500 BC.[9] When the waters subsided after river floods, some fishes, mainly carp, were trapped in lakes. Early aquaculturists fed their brood
using nymphs and silkworm feces, and ate them. A fortunate genetic mutation of carp led to the emergence of goldfish during the Tang Dynasty. Japanese cultivated seaweed by providing bamboo poles and, later, nets and oyster shells to serve as anchoring surfaces for spores. Romans bred fish in ponds.[10] In central Europe, early Christian monasteries adopted Roman aquacultural practices.[11] Aquaculture spread in Europe during the Middle Ages, since away from the seacoasts and the
big rivers, fish were scarce/
expensive. Improvements in
transportation during the 19th
century made fish easily available
and inexpensive, even in inland areas, making aquaculture less
popular. Hawaiians constructed oceanic fish ponds (see Hawaiian aquaculture). A remarkable example is a fish pond dating from at least
1,000 years ago, at Alekoko.
Legend says that it was
constructed by the mythical Menehune dwarf people. In 1859 Stephen Ainsworth of West Bloomfield, New York, began experiments with brook trout. By 1864 Seth Green had established a
commercial fish hatching
operation at Caledonia Springs,
near Rochester, New York. By 1866, with the involvement of Dr.
W. W. Fletcher of Concord, Massachusetts, artificial fish hatcheries were under way in
both Canada and the United States.[12] When the Dildo Island fish hatchery opened in
Newfoundland in 1889, it was the
largest and most advanced in the
world. Californians harvested wild kelp and attempted to manage supply
circa 1900, later labeling it a wartime resource.[13] Definition Tilapia, a commonly farmed fish due to its adaptability According to the FAO, aquaculture "is understood to mean the
farming of aquatic organisms
including fish, molluscs,
crustaceans and aquatic plants.
Farming implies some form of
intervention in the rearing process to enhance production,
such as regular stocking, feeding,
protection from predators, etc.
Farming also implies individual or
corporate ownership of the stock being cultivated."[14] 21st century practice About 430 (97%) of the species cultured as of 2007 were
domesticated during the 20th
century, of which an estimated
106 came in the decade to 2007.
Given the long-term importance
of agriculture, it is interesting to note that to date only 0.08% of
known land plant species and
0.0002% of known land animal
species have been domesticated,
compared with 0.17% of known
marine plant species and 0.13% of known marine animal species.
Domestication typically involves
about a decade of scientific research.[15] Domesticating aquatic species involves fewer
risks to humans than land
animals, which took a large toll in
human lives. Most major human
diseases originated in domesticated animals,[16] through diseases such as smallpox and diphtheria, that like most infectious diseases, move to
humans from animals. No human pathogens of comparable virulence have yet emerged from
marine species. Harvest stagnation in wild fisheries and overexploitation of popular marine species, combined with a growing demand for high
quality protein, encourage
aquaculturists to domesticate other marine species.[17][18] Production volume In 2004, the total world
production of fisheries was 140
million tonnes of which aquaculture contributed 45 million tonnes, about one third.[19] The growth rate of worldwide
aquaculture has been sustained
and rapid, averaging about 8
percent per annum for over thirty
years, while the take from wild fisheries has been essentially flat for the last decade. The
aquaculture market reached $86 billion[20] in 2009. [21] Average annual percentage
growth for different species groups[19] Time period Crustaceans Molluscs F 1970–
2004 18.9 7.7 9.3 1970–
1980 23.9 5.6 6.0 1980–
1990 24.1 7.0 1 1990–
2000 9.1 11.6 1 2000–
2004 19.2 5.3 5.2 Major species groups in 2004 Species group Million tonnes[19] Freshwater fishes 23.87 Molluscs 13.93 Aquatic plants 13.24 Diadromous
fishes 3.68 Crustaceans 2.85 Marine fishes 1.45 Other aquatic animals 0.38 Carp are the dominant fish in aquaculture Top ten species groups in
2004 Species group Million tonnes[19] Carps and other cyprinids 18.30 Oysters 4.60 Clams, cockles, ark shells 4.12 Miscellaneous freshwater fishes 3.74 Shrimps, prawns 2.48 Salmons, trouts, smelts 1.98 Mussels 1.86 Tilapias and other cichlids 1.82 Scallops, pectens 1.17 Miscellaneous
marine molluscs 1.07 Aquaculture is an especially
important economic activity in
China. Between 1980 and 1997, the
Chinese Bureau of Fisheries
reports, aquaculture harvests
grew at an annual rate of 16.7 percent, jumping from 1.9 million
tonnes to nearly 23 million
tonnes. In 2005, China accounted for 70% of world production.[22] [23] Aquaculture is also currently one of the fastest growing areas of food production in the U.S.[1] Mariculture off High Island, Hong Kong Top ten aquaculture
producers in 2004 Country Million tonnes [19] China 30.61 India 2.47 Vietnam 1.20 Thailand 1.17 Indonesia 1.05 Bangladesh 0.91 Japan 0.78 Chile 0.67 Norway 0.64 United States 0.61 Other
countries 5.35 Total 45.47 Approximately 90% of all U.S.
shrimp consumption is farmed and imported.[24] In recent years salmon aquaculture has become a major export in southern Chile, especially in Puerto Montt, Chile's fastest-growing city. Over reporting China overwhelmingly dominates
the world in reported aquaculture output.[25] They report a total output which is double that of the
rest of the world put together.
However, there are issues with
the accuracy of China's returns. In 2001, the fisheries scientists Reg
Watson and Daniel Pauly expressed concerns in a letter to
Nature, that China was over
reporting its catch from wild fisheries in the 1990s.[5][26] They said that made it appear that the
global catch since 1988 was
increasing annually by 300,000
tonnes, whereas it was really
shrinking annually by 350,000
tonnes. Watson and Pauly suggested this may be related to
China policies where state entities
that monitor the economy are
also tasked with increasing
output. Also, until recently, the
promotion of Chinese officials was based on production increases from their own areas.[27][28] China disputes this claim. The
official Xinhua News Agency quoted Yang Jian, director general
of the Agriculture Ministry's
Bureau of Fisheries, as saying that
China's figures were "basically correct".[29] However, the FAO accepts there are issues with the
reliability of China's statistical
returns, and currently treats data
from China, including the
aquaculture data, apart from the rest of the world.[30][31] Methods Mariculture Main article: Mariculture Mariculture is the term used for the cultivation of marine
organisms in seawater, usually in sheltered coastal waters. In
particular, the farming of marine
fish is an example of mariculture,
and so also is the farming of
marine crustaceans (such as shrimps), molluscs (such as oysters) and seaweed. Integrated Main article: Integrated Multi- trophic Aquaculture
Integrated Multi-Trophic
Aquaculture (IMTA) is a practice in which the by-products (wastes)
from one species are recycled to
become inputs (fertilizers, food) for another. Fed aquaculture (for
example, fish, shrimp) is combined with inorganic
extractive (for example, seaweed) and organic extractive (for
example, shellfish) aquaculture to create balanced systems for
environmental sustainability
(biomitigation), economic stability
(product diversification and risk
reduction) and social acceptability
(better management practices). [32] "Multi-Trophic" refers to the
incorporation of species from different trophic or nutritional levels in the same system.[33] This is one potential distinction
from the age-old practice of
aquatic polyculture, which could simply be the co-culture of
different fish species from the
same trophic level. In this case,
these organisms may all share the
same biological and chemical
processes, with few synergistic benefits, which could potentially
lead to significant shifts in the ecosystem. Some traditional polyculture systems may, in fact,
incorporate a greater diversity of
species, occupying several niches, as extensive cultures (low
intensity, low management)
within the same pond. The
"Integrated" in IMTA refers to the
more intensive cultivation of the
different species in proximity of each other, connected by nutrient
and energy transfer through
water. Ideally, the biological and
chemical processes in an IMTA
system should balance. This is
achieved through the appropriate
selection and proportions of
different species providing different ecosystem functions. The
co-cultured species are typically
more than just biofilters; they are harvestable crops of commercial value.[33] A working IMTA system can result in greater total
production based on mutual
benefits to the co-cultured species
and improved ecosystem health, even if the production of
individual species is lower than in
a monoculture over a short term period.[34] Sometimes the term "Integrated
Aquaculture" is used to describe
the integration of monocultures through water transfer.[34] For all intents and purposes however,
the terms "IMTA" and "integrated
aquaculture" differ only in their
degree of descriptiveness. Aquaponics, fractionated aquaculture, IAAS (integrated
agriculture-aquaculture systems),
IPUAS (integrated peri-urban-
aquaculture systems), and IFAS
(integrated fisheries-aquaculture
systems) are other variations of the IMTA concept. Netting materials Various materials, including nylon, polyester, polypropylene, polyethylene, plastic-coated welded wire, rubber, patented rope products (Spectra, Thorn-D, Dyneema), galvanized steel and copper are used for netting in aquaculture fish enclosures around the world.[35][36][37][38] [39] All of these materials are selected for a variety of reasons,
including design feasibility, material strength, cost, and corrosion resistance. Main article: Copper alloys in aquaculture Recently, copper alloys have
become important netting
materials in aquaculture because
they are antimicrobial (i.e., they
destroy bacteria, viruses, fungi, algae, and other microbes) and they therefore prevent biofouling (i.e., the undesirable
accumulation, adhesion, and
growth of microorganisms, plants,
algae, tubeworms, barnacles,
mollusks, and other organisms).
By inhibiting microbial growth, copper alloy aquaculture cages
avoid costly net changes that are
necessary with other materials.
The resistance of organism
growth on copper alloy nets also
provides a cleaner and healthier environment for farmed fish to
grow and thrive. Species groups Fish Main article: Fish farming The farming of fish is the most
common form of aquaculture. It
involves raising fish commercially
in tanks, ponds, or ocean
enclosures, usually for food. A
facility that releases juvenile fish into the wild for recreational fishing or to supplement a species' natural numbers is generally
referred to as a fish hatchery. Fish species raised by fish farms
include salmon, bigeye tuna, carp, tilapia, catfish and cod.[40] In the Mediterranean, young bluefin tuna are netted at sea and towed slowly towards the shore.
They are then interned in offshore
pens where they are further grown for the market.[41] In 2009, researchers in Australia managed for the first time to coax
tuna (Southern bluefin) to breed in landlocked tanks. Crustaceans See also: Shrimp farm and Freshwater prawn farm Commercial shrimp farming began in the 1970s, and production grew
steeply thereafter. Global
production reached more than 1.6
million tonnes in 2003, worth
about 9 billion U.S. dollars. About 75% of farmed shrimp is produced
in Asia, in particular in China and Thailand. The other 25% is produced mainly in Latin America, where Brazil is the largest producer. Thailand is the largest
exporter. Shrimp farming has changed from
its traditional, small-scale form in Southeast Asia into a global industry. Technological advances
have led to ever higher densities
per unit area, and broodstock is shipped worldwide. Virtually all
farmed shrimp are penaeids (i.e., shrimp of the family Penaeidae), and just two species of shrimp, the Pacific white shrimp and the giant tiger prawn, account for about 80% of all farmed shrimp. These
industrial monocultures are very susceptible to disease, which has decimated shrimp populations
across entire regions. Increasing ecological problems, repeated disease outbreaks, and pressure
and criticism from both NGOs and consumer countries led to changes
in the industry in the late 1990s
and generally stronger
regulations. In 1999,
governments, industry
representatives, and environmental organizations
initiated a program aimed at
developing and promoting more sustainable farming practices.[citation needed] Freshwater prawn farming shares many characteristics with,
including many problems with
marine shrimp farming. Unique problems are introduced by the
developmental life cycle of the
main species, the giant river prawn.[42] The global annual production of
freshwater prawns (excluding crayfish and crabs) in 2003 was about 280,000 tonnes of which China produced 180,000 tonnes
followed by India and Thailand
with 35,000 tonnes each.
Additionally, China produced
about 370,000 tonnes of Chinese river crab.[43] Molluscs Abalone farm See also: Oyster farming Abalone farming began in the late 1950s and early 1960s in Japan and China.[44] Since the mid-1990s, this industry has
become increasingly successful. [45] Over-fishing and poaching have reduced wild populations to
the extent that farmed abalone
now supplies most abalone meat. Echinoderms Commercially harvested echinoderms include sea cucumbers and sea urchins. In China, sea cucumbers are farmed in artificial ponds as large as 1,000 acres (400 ha).[46] Algae See also: Algaculture and Seaweed farming
Microalgae, also referred to as phytoplankton, microphytes, or planktonic algae constitute the majority of cultivated algae. Macroalgae, commonly known as seaweed, also have many commercial and industrial uses,
but due to their size and specific
requirements, they are not easily
cultivated on a large scale and are
most often taken in the wild. Issues See also: Issues with salmon aquaculture Aquaculture can be more
environmentally damaging than
exploiting wild fisheries on a local area basis but has considerably
less impact on the global
environment on a per kg of production basis.[47] Local concerns include waste handling,
side-effects of antibiotics, competition between farmed and
wild animals, and using other fish
to feed more marketable carnivorous fish. However, research and commercial feed
improvements during the 1990s
and 2000s have lessened many of these concerns.[48] Fish waste is organic and
composed of nutrients necessary
in all components of aquatic food
webs. In-ocean aquaculture often
produces much higher[citation needed] than normal fish waste concentrations.
The waste collects on the ocean
bottom, damaging or eliminating
bottom-dwelling life. Waste can
also decrease dissolved oxygen levels in the water column, putting further pressure on wild animals.[49] Fish oils Further information: Tilapia#Nutrition Tilapia from aquaculture has been
shown to contain more fat and a
much higher ratio of omega-6 to
omega-3 oils. Impacts on wild fish Salmon farming currently leads to
a high demand for wild forage fish. Fish do not actually produce omega-3 fatty acids, but instead
accumulate them from either
consuming microalgae that produce these fatty acids, as is the
case with forage fish like herring and sardines, or, as is the case with fatty predatory fish, like salmon, by eating prey fish that have accumulated omega-3 fatty acids from microalgae. To satisfy this requirement, more than 50
percent of the world fish oil production is fed to farmed salmon.[50] In addition, as carnivores, salmon
require large nutritional intakes of
protein, protein which is often
supplied to them in the form of
forage fish. Consequently, farmed
salmon consume more wild fish than they generate as a final
product. To produce one pound of
farmed salmon, products from
several pounds of wild fish are fed
to them. As the salmon farming
industry expands, it requires more wild forage fish for feed, at
a time when seventy five percent
of the worlds monitored fisheries
are already near to or have
exceeded their maximum sustainable yield.[6] The industrial scale extraction of wild forage fish
for salmon farming then impacts
the survivability of the wild
predator fish who rely on them
for food. Fish can escape from coastal pens,
where they can interbreed with
their wild counterparts, diluting wild genetic stocks.[51] Escaped fish can become invasive, out competing native species.[52] Coastal ecosystems Aquaculture is becoming a
significant threat to coastal ecosystems. About 20 percent of mangrove forests have been
destroyed since 1980, partly due to shrimp farming.[53] An extended cost–benefit analysis of
the total economic value of shrimp aquaculture built on
mangrove ecosystems found that
the external costs were much higher than the external benefits. [54] Over four decades, 269,000 hectares (660,000 acres) of
Indonesian mangroves have been
converted to shrimp farms. Most
of these farms are abandoned
within a decade because of the toxin build-up and nutrient loss. [55][56] Salmon farms are typically sited in pristine coastal ecosystems which
they then pollute. A farm with
200,000 salmon discharges more
fecal waste than a city of 60,000
people. This waste is discharged
directly into the surrounding aquatic environment, untreated,
often containing antibiotics and pesticides."[6] There is also an accumulation of heavy metals on the benthos (seafloor) near the salmon farms, particularly copper and zinc.[57] Genetic modification Salmon have been genetically modified for faster growth, although they are not approved
for commercial use, in the face of opposition.[58] One study, in a laboratory setting, found that
modified salmon mixed with their
wild relatives were aggressive in
competing, but ultimately failed. [59] Animal welfare See also: Pain in fish As with the farming of terrestrial
animals, social attitudes influence
the need for humane practices
and regulations in farmed marine
animals. Under the guidelines
advised by the Farm Animal Welfare Council good animal welfare means both fitness and a
sense of well being in the
animal’s physical and mental
state. This can be defined by the Five Freedoms: Freedom from hunger & thirst Freedom from discomfort Freedom from pain, disease, or
injury Freedom to express normal
behaviour Freedom from fear and distress However, the controversial issue
in aquaculture is whether fish and
farmed marine invertebrates are
actually sentient, or have the perception and awareness to
experience suffering. Although no
evidence of this has been found in marine invertebrates,[60] recent studies conclude that fish do have
the necessary receptors
(nociceptors) to sense noxious stimuli and so are likely to
experience states of pain, fear and stress.[60][61] Consequently, welfare in aquaculture is directed
at vertebrates; finfish in particular.[62] Common welfare concerns Welfare in aquaculture can be
impacted by a number of issues
such as stocking densities,
behavioural interactions, disease and parasitism. A major problem in determining the cause of
impaired welfare is that these
issues are often all interrelated
and influence each other at different times.[63] Optimal stocking density is often
defined by the carrying capacity of the stocked environment and
the amount of individual space
needed by the fish, which is very
species specific. Although
behavioural interactions such as shoaling may mean that high stocking densities are beneficial to some species,[60][64] in many cultured species high stocking
densities may be of concern.
Crowding can constrain normal
swimming behaviour, as well as
increase aggressive and
competitive behaviours such as cannibalism,[65] feed competition, [66] territoriality and dominance/ subordination hierarchies.[67] This potentially increases the risk
of tissue damage due to abrasion
from fish-to-fish contact or fish- to-cage contact.[60] Fish can suffer reductions in food intake and food conversion efficiency.[67] In addition, high stocking densities
can result in water flow being
insufficient, creating inadequate
oxygen supply and waste product removal.[64]Dissolved oxygen is essential for fish respiration and
concentrations below critical
levels can induce stress and even lead to asphyxiation.[67] Ammonia, a nitrogen excretion
product, is highly toxic to fish at
accumulated levels, particularly
when oxygen concentrations are low.[68] Many of these interactions and
effects cause stress in the fish,
which can be a major factor in facilitating fish disease.[62] For many parasites, infestation
depends on the host’s degree of
mobility, the density of the host
population and vulnerability of the host’s defence system.[69] Sea lice are the primary parasitic
problem for finfish in aquaculture,
high numbers causing widespread
skin erosion and haemorrhaging,
gill congestion,and increased mucus production.[70] There are also a number of prominent viral
and bacterial pathogens that can have severe effects on internal organs and nervous systems.[71] Improving welfare The key to improving welfare of
marine cultured organisms is to
reduce stress to a minimum, as
prolonged or repeated stress can
cause a range of adverse effects.
Attempts to minimise stress can occur throughout the culture
process. During grow out it is
important to keep stocking
densities at appropriate levels
specific to each species, as well as
separating size classes and grading to reduce aggressive
behavioural interactions. Keeping
nets and cages clean can assist
positive water flow to reduce the
risk of water degradation. Not surprisingly disease and
parasitism can have a major effect
on fish welfare and it is important
for farmers not only to manage
infected stock but also to apply
disease prevention measures. However, prevention methods,
such as vaccination, can also
induce stress because of the extra handling and injection.[64] Other methods include adding
antibiotics to feed, adding
chemicals into water for
treatment baths and biological
control, such as using cleaner wrasse to remove lice from farmed salmon.[64] Many steps are involved in
transport, including capture, food
deprivation to reduce faecal
contamination of transport water,
transfer to transport vehicle via
nets or pumps, plus transport and transfer to the delivery location.
During transport water needs to
be maintained to a high quality,
with regulated temperature,
sufficient oxygen and minimal waste products.[62][64] In some cases anaesthetics may be used in small doses to calm fish before transport.[64] Aquaculture is sometimes part of
an environmental rehabilitation
program or as an aid in
conserving endangered species. [72] Prospects Global wild fisheries are in decline, with valuable habitat such as estuaries in critical condition.[73] The aquaculture or farming of piscivorous fish, like salmon, does not help the problem because
they need to eat products from
other fish, such as fish meal and fish oil. Studies have shown that salmon farming has major negative impacts on wild salmon, as well as the forage fish that need to be caught to feed them. [74][75] Fish that are higher on the food chain are less efficient sources of food energy. Apart from fish and shrimp, some
aquaculture undertakings, such as
seaweed and filter-feeding bivalve
mollusks like oysters, clams, mussels and scallops, are relatively benign and even environmentally restorative. [18] Filter-feeders filter pollutants as
well as nutrients from the water,
improving water quality. [76]Seaweeds extract nutrients such as inorganic nitrogen and phosphorus directly from the water,[32] and filter-feeding mollusks can extract nutrients as they feed on particulates, such as phytoplankton and detritus.[77] Some profitable aquaculture
cooperatives promote sustainable practices.[78] New methods lessen the risk of biological and chemical pollution through minimizing fish stress, fallowing netpens, and
applying Integrated Pest Management. Vaccines are being used more and more to reduce antibiotic use for disease control. [79] Onshore recirculating aquaculture
systems, facilities using polyculture techniques, and properly sited facilities (for
example, offshore areas with
strong currents) are examples of
ways to manage negative
environmental effects. Recirculating aquaculture systems
(RAS) recycle water by circulating
it through filters to remove fish
waste and food and then
recirculating it back into the tanks.
This saves water and the waste gathered can be used in compost or, in some cases, could even be
treated and used on land. While
RAS was developed with
freshwater fish in mind, scientist
associated with the Agricultural Research Service have found a way to rear saltwater fish using RAS in low-salinity waters.[80] Although saltwater fish are raised
in off-shore cages or caught with
nets in water that typically has a
salinity of 35 parts per thousand (ppt), scientists were able to
produce healthy pompano, a
saltwater fish, in tanks with a
salinity of only 5 ppt.
Commercializing low-salinity RAS
are predicted to have positive environmental and economical
effects. Unwanted nutrients from
the fish food would not be added
to the ocean and the risk of
transmitting diseases between
wild and farm-raised fish would greatly be reduced. The price of
expensive saltwater fish, such as
the pompano and combia used in
the experiments, would be
reduced. However, before any of
this can be done researchers must study every aspect of the fish’s
lifecycle, including the amount of
ammonia and nitrate the fish will
tolerate in the water, what to feed
the fish during each stage of its
lifecycle, the stocking rate that will produce the healthiest fish, etc.[80] Some 16 countries now use geothermal energy for aquaculture, including China, Israel, and the United States.[81] In California, for example, 15 fish
farms produce tilapia, bass, and
catfish with warm water from
underground. This warmer water
enables fish to grow all year
round and mature more quickly. Collectively these California farms
produce 4.5 million kilograms of fish each year.[81] See also Sustainable
development
portal Water portal Marine life
portal Aquaponics Agroecology Copper alloys in aquaculture Fisheries science Fish hatchery Industrial aquaculture Notes 1. ^ a b Environmental Impact of Aquaculture 2. ^ Aquaculture’s growth continuing: improved
management techniques can
reduce environmental effects of
the practice.(UPDATE)."
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